American Board of Information Security and Computer Forensics

Analysis and Identification of Skeletal Remains

All skeletal materials were exhumed using established archaeological methods of excavation. At certain times with the suggestion of the EAAF, a bulldozer and other heavy equipment was necessary to reduce the laborious work and expedite the excavation of the interment sites of military importance (Fig. 3).

All excavated materials were brought to the Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology at the Judicial Morgue of Montevideo City following standard methods for handling forensic evidence (Karagioziz and Scaglio, 2005), where the remains were analyzed to determine cause of death, stature, age at death, racial affinity, gender, and eventually identity. The first excavation, Site A at the 13^th Infantry Headquarters, was started in early March with authorization from President Dr. Tabaré Vázquez Rosas. This site yielded small bone fragments, which were analyzed by university specialists and a pathologist from the Judicial Morgue of Montevideo City. These tiny bone fragments were examined histologically, and none of the specialists could determine whether they belonged to a human or animal. The skeletal fragments were stored for later analysis (Echenique, 2005;Troccoli, 2005).

On November 29, 2005, the first complete skeleton was recovered on a private farm near the city of Pando, located about 30 km northeast of Montevideo. This skeleton was later identified as Ubagesner Chaves Sosa by dental and anthropological analyses (Andina Lisboa, 2005; Solla, 2005b). Ubagesner Chaves Sosa was tortured, killed, and buried on a farm used by the Uruguayan Air Force (Fig. 4).

On December, 2, 2005, a second set of human skeletal remains was recovered from inside the 13^th Infantry Headquarters in Montevideo City (Fig. 5). These remains were later identified by anthropological methods and confirmed by DNA analysis to be those of Fernando Miranda (Solla, 2006; Presidencia, 2007).

Another discovery was also made inside the 13^th Infantry Headquarters, which consisted of a portion of a left radius that was situated next to the casing of a 9mm bullet. The bone was analyzed by the staff radiologist and anthropologist at the Judicial Morgue of Montevideo City (Solla, 2005a; Taranto, 2005). The excavated single radius with a missing proximal epiphysis was determined to be that of an adult female over 25 years of age at time of death and a stature of about 155.0 cm +/- 4.0 cm. The bone was missing its proximal end. Sex was established by morphological traits (Krogman and Iscan, 1986) and the total length of the bone was calculated by the formulae for adult white females (Steele, 1970). One of the individuals reported missing was a schoolteacher, Elena Quinteros. The partial radius was suspected to have come from her. However, three DNA analyses were carried out, one at the EAAF laboratory of Cordoba City, Argentina (Vullo, 2006); a second analysis by the Technical Police of Montevideo City, Uruguay (Dominguez and Pagano, 2006); and a third, conducted through the University of Granada, Spain (Lorente Acosta, 2006). None of the DNA analyses gave definitive results to the identity of the individua; the scientists were also unable to extract any usable mitochondrial DNA material.

Neither the remains of Jose Arpino Vega nor those of any other human beings have been found at the 14^th Paratroop Infantry location. Once all skeletal remains were excavated, they were placed in a secure room to maintain the chain of custody.

With the exception of the single radius, the excavated skeletons were nearly complete but badly preserved. The long bones and skulls seemed the best suited sections for identification. Once the broken bones were repaired, photographs, anthropometric dimensions, and morphological observations were obtained from the skeletons. The skull of Miranda was better reconstructed and revealed information about dental restorations (Fig. 6).

The skull was further prepared for video superimposition with the photographs of the missing victims. Anthropometric characteristics of the two skeletons are presented in Table 1.

Using a combination of morphological and metric characteristics, it was determined that the remains found at a farm near Pando City were those of a Caucasoid male (Giles, 1970; Krogman and Iscan, 1986). Stature was calculated to be about 166.0 cm +/-3.0 cm using Trotter regression tables (Trotter, 1970). Racial affinity was determined using discriminant function analysis (Giles and Elliot, 1962); there was no obvious evidence of prior injury that might aid in identification. The methods to determine age at death were suture closure (Solla, 1994); the medullary cavity involution of the humerus (Soto et al 1989); dental attrition (Lovejoy, 1985); multiple component analysis (Acsadi and Nemeskeri, 1970); and pubic symphysis analysis (Todd, 1920; Snow, 1983; Katz and Suchey, 1986). Approximately one month later, after the anthropological examination confirmed that the victim was Ubagesner Chaves Sosa, DNA analysis reconfirmed the finding (Presidencia de la República, 2007).

The condition of the post-cranial bones of Miranda’s skeleton was not as good as those of Ubagesner Chaves Sosa, even though the grave itself was covered by a concrete slab. The reason for this was the humidity of the soil and the time elapsed since burial, combined with the fact that the bones were in an area that was frequently in use as a roadway for military equipment, which sent vibrations deep into the ground that damaged the bones as vehicles drove over and near the grave. However, the concrete slab may have provided a small amount of protection for the body. Several bones, specifically those of the chest, were completely fragmented. A small cord was found around the victim’s neck, possibly from an identification tag which may have been used as a means of cataloging the prisoners. Any tag that might have contained a form of identification had long since disintegrated due to the long burial time and environmental conditions. The hands and feet did not contain any identifying information. The vertebral column was also badly preserved; only the lumbar vertebrae were available for analysis. The arms and legs were of a condition which also allowed inspection. Overall assessment revealed that the remains belonged to a white adult male with an age range of 45 to 60 years.

All the measurable dimensions obtained at the Forensic Anthropology Laboratory from the skeletal remains of Fernando Miranda are given in Table 1. The sex of the skeleton was determined by morphological and discriminant functions analysis (Giles, 1970; Krogman and Iscan,1986). Stature was calculated by appropriate long bone lengths applied to the regression formulae listed in Trotter’s tables (Trotter, 1970).

Table 1. Anthropometric values, indices, and stature of the skeletons of Ubagesner Chaves Sosa found in a farm near Pando City and of Fernando Miranda found in the 13^th Infantry Headquarters.

It was estimated that the victim was about 168.0 +/- 3.0 cm tall. Race was determined to be Caucasoid according to one of the discriminant function formulae developed by Giles’ formulae (Giles and Elliot, 1962}. Estimation of age at death was calculated using bones and the appropriate age techniques. The suture closure suggested an age between 50 and 60 years (Solla, 1994); medullary cavity of the humerus an average of 57.58 years (Soto et al., 1989); dental attrition between 45-55 years (Lovejoy, 1985); pubic symphysis analysis about 50 years old (Todd, 1920; Snow, 1983; Katz and Suchey, 1986). A more complex method by Acsadi and Nemeskeri (Acsadi and Nemeskeri, 1970) indicated an average age of 57.7 years old.

Identification of the Skeletons

In each case, the skeletons were identified by the method of photo to skull comparison by digital video superimposition. The identities of the two skeletons were later confirmed by DNA analysis (Presidencia de la República, 2007).

The identification of a victim from skeletal remains is one of the most challenging aspects of forensic sciences (Iscan, 1988a; Iscan, 1990; Iscan, 1995c; Iscan and Loth, 1997; Iscan, 1998; Iscan and Solla, 2000; Solla, 1991; Solla, 1994; Solla, 1998). The technique of skull-photo superimposition has been used to assist in the identification of numerous victims and is accepted in courts in a number of countries (Glaister and Brash, 1937; Basauri, 1967; Koelmeyer, 1982; Cai and Lan, 1982; Hagemeier, 1983; Dorion, 1983; Helmer, 1986; Helmer, 1987; Cai et al, 1989; Yoshino and Seta, 1989; Ivanov and Abramov, 1991; Ubelaker,1996; Solla,1999; Solla and Iscan, 2001). The use of a computer in this technique has added a number of advantages to the process (Pesce Delfino et al, 1986; Nickerson et al, 1991). One person can accomplish the whole procedure. The technique requires great experience and standard equipment consisting of one digital video camera, a standard high resolution monitor, a tripod for the video camera, a digital video mixer, a skull positioning stand, a photo stand to hold the photo for comparison, several white fluorescent lamps, a personal computer, a DVD recorder unit, a Pinnacle Studio DC 10 video capture and editing card (.jpg format is recommended), and a printer unit.

The first photograph used in the comparison was that of Ubagesner Chaves Sosa in lateral view. It was placed under the video camera and illuminated by a white fluorescent lamp. The image was adjusted on both screens (a conventional high resolution monitor and personal computer monitor). This image was digitized by the digital video mixer and stored in the computer as a .jpg file. Next, a transparent plastic sheet was taped to both monitors. Key anatomical landmarks on the face were traced on these sheets. The image of the first photo was removed from both monitors and, using the digital mixer controls, it was placed under the video camera that was focused on the unknown skull which had been prepared with tissue markers and illuminated by white fluorescent lamps. The skull was manipulated manually or by a servo-motor until the position approximated that of the individual in the photograph. After the skull was correctly oriented, using the video camera zoom, the size of the skull image was adjusted so that it was as close as possible to that of the individual in the photograph. After comparing anatomical landmarks in the skull with their counterparts marked on the plastic overlays, the image of the skull was digitalized using the digital video mixer unit and then stored as .jpg files on the computer hard drive. Both images (photo and skull) were then superimposed on both monitors for a detailed comparison. The digital mixer unit permitted the desired combinations of photo-skull comparison, including removal of soft tissue to view the underlying skeletal structures such as the auditory canal, zygomatics, and jaw bones, nasal root, dentition, chin, skull contours and so forth. The entire process was recorded by a DVD unit. Good quality photographs can be made by the computer printer to attach to a forensic report or sent by electronic mail to other experts. The same procedure was followed using all the photographic evidence obtained for comparison (Fig. 8).

Each of the fragmented skulls and mandibles had to be reconstructed in order to compare them with the submitted photographs by video superimposition.

The identification of Ubagesner Chaves Sosa was aided by information provided by his wife indicating that in his youth he had received a trauma to his upper right central incisor resulting in the tooth becoming discolored (Fig. 9).

Fernando Miranda was also identified by the method of photo-skull comparison by digital video superimposition. Two good photographs were submitted by the presidential secretary for comparison with the skeletal materials recovered. While his height, race, sex and age at death were known, identification was more difficult since characterizing information was not provided to the forensic anthropologist by his family or by his dentist that might aid in the analysis (Fig. 10).

Discussion

The investigation was delayed for a long time due to legal issues and military autonomy barring the examination of armed forces facilities suspected to be involved in the disappearance of many individuals during the period of 1973-1984.

In the present study, the analysis of both individuals indicated that conformity was found between the skull and all recognizable proportions of head, face, eyes, nose, and mouth on the photographs. The outlines of the soft tissue on the skulls were congruent with the facial contours in each of the photographs. Therefore the comparisons failed to exclude these skulls as being those of Ubagesner Chaves Sosa and Fernando Miranda. Several images of superimpositions and pictures sections (vertical and horizontal) were obtained showing excellent matches between all photographs and the unknown skulls. Therefore, a positive identification could be made by comparison of photo-skull.

Discovery of human skeletal remains inside the 13^th Infantry Headquarters and a civilian location near Pando City demonstrate that the information given by COPAZ about the final destination of missing persons during the last dictatorial regime was false or at least incorrect. COPAZ, in its final report, said that “all the remains have been cremated and thrown into the sea in 1984” (Comisión para la Paz, 2003).

Inquiry into the widespread lack of protection for human rights continues on a global level without any sign of resolution. Two things, however, are obvious: 1. there are no easy answers to this problem, and, 2. solutions cannot be discovered without information and evidence collection. This is where the scientist is not only useful, but essential. The work must begin by acknowledging the relationship between science and human rights. Scientists make unique contributions to human rights through the application of scientific methods and techniques of investigation into these kinds of abuses as well as other violations. In such cases, evidence is often based solely on oral testimony from victims or other eyewitnesses. There is no doubt about the importance of oral testimony; however, this form of evidence is far more effective when corroborated by material proof. Physical evidence has an even greater value when there are conflicting testimonies from several different parties. It can be used to support, contradict, or further explain other circumstances.

The most critical need for material verification is when no other evidence exists. Either the events in question were not witnessed by any living person, or the witnesses are unwilling to testify. In these situations, the material evidence is the only path to the truth. Scientific analysis is essential for evaluation of physical evidence. A well-trained forensic scientist maintains a careful chain of custody, preserves the security of the evidence, explains the methods used in analysis, reports any and all results, and testifies about the methods, results, and conclusions within a court of law.

Human rights work, for the professional forensic scientist, is his or her daily routine. In cases of human rights violations, forensic scientists are the people in authority, cultural assumptions just do not apply, and the scale of the work is far greater. One unexpected difference is the lack of support disciplines. In many parts of the world, these individuals find that it is necessary to become “jacks-of-all trades.”

Within the most industrialized countries, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is largely upheld by domestic law. Therefore, on home soil, human rights tend to be identified with law enforcement and forensic investigations. In many other parts of the world, however, human rights are not upheld by civil or criminal law. The only recourse for action is through the application of international human rights covenants. Under such conditions, the only people available to enforce human rights covenants are those employed by private and international human rights organizations. The application of the forensic sciences to human rights investigation can be crucial in proving that such violations occurred and in obtaining judicial redress for criminal activity (Hannibal, 1992; Amnesty International, 1994)

Forensic anthropologists, both physical anthropologists and archaeologists, contribute to human rights primarily by aiding in death investigations. All of them join with other forensic scientists in revealing evidence of mass murder, genocide, torture, execution, and in cases of political disappearances. Forensic anthropologists are called in especially in cases where trauma analysis and personal identification of human skeletal remains is required. Sometimes the bodies require careful archaeological excavation in order to expose the remains and associated evidence such as clothes, coins, personal documents, and so on. Generally the entire site must be treated like a crime scene, and the archaeologist must be careful to obtain the greatest amount of information from the site. This is crucial since an excavation destroys the site. Identification and other studies must be done in the laboratory to interpret the events surrounding the death. In Uruguay, the local judge must always be present at the scene of a crime.

Perhaps the first use of forensic anthropology in a human rights mission occurred in 1984, when a group of scientists from the United States was asked to aid in the location and identification of victims of the 1976-1983 Argentinean Junta regimes. Forensic anthropologist Dr. Clyde Snow was asked to be a consultant representing the Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo. This is a group of grandmothers and mothers of the “disappeared people” during the last Argentinean dictatorial regime (EAAF, 1990a; EAAF, 1990b). In Uruguay, the first set of skeletal remains of a disappeared person to be recovered and identified from the time of the dictatorial regime was that of the late Roberto Gomensoro Josman. His remains were analyzed and identified in early July 2002 (Solla et al. 2005).

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank: Dr. Alejandro Recarey, former judge in charge of the Elena Quinteros case; Dr. Juan Carlos Fernandez Lecchini, judge in charge of the Elena Quinteros case; Dr. Gustavo Mirabal, judge in charge of the María Claudia de Gelman case; Dra. Mirtha Guianze, prosecutor in charge of the Elena Quinteros case; Tte. Gral Angel Bertolotti, former commander in chief of the armed forces; and Col. Raúl Glodosky, former secretary to the commander in chief; Dr José María López Mazz, director in chief of the Forensic Archaeologist Team; Dra. Maris Rivoira, director in chief of the Instituto Técnico Forense; and Dra. Mónica Etcheverry, vice director in chief of the Instituto Técnico Forense, for their support and assistance in the investigation and analyses of these cases. Without their cooperation and interest in these projects, a resolution of the disappearance of the discovered remains and their subsequent identification would not have been possible.

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